Keep Hydrated While Working Out: 7 How-To Tips

You've been told your whole life that you need your eight glasses of water a day, and while how much one needs to take in is still up for debate, the truth remains that for optimal functioning, the body needs a consistent intake of water.

For the average person, thirst should be your guide. If you're feeling like you could wet your whistle, do so. But make sure you reach for H20, and not an overly sugary, caffeinated beverage. This will only exacerbate your thirst. Keep in mind that fluids can be obtained not just from water but also foods that are high in water, like fruits and vegetables.

But what if you're an athlete or an avid exerciser? Does this mean you need to take in additional fluids? The long and short of it—yes.

The body loses about two to three quarts of water every day. If you're exercising, the loss can be much more.

1. Start your morning with a cup of H20. A six to eight hour stint without fluids can leave you groggy and tired. Kick your day off with a glass of water instead of coffee.

2. Hydrate all day long. The key to ensuring your hydration when you're exercising is by taking in fluids all day long. Continue your fluid intake throughout the day. This will keep your body running at the highest level.

3. Drink two or more hours before you exercise. This will allow time for your body to process the fluid.

4. Drink again a few minutes right before you begin your activity.

5. Drink periodically during your workout. If you've been hydrating properly throughout the day, taking "baby sips" should suffice. Long gulps of water can leave you feeling bloated and uncomfortable. If you're playing a sport, at halftime reach for an orange. They're delicious and packed with fluid.

6. Make sure you hydrate properly after you've finished. The biggest mistake an athlete can make is to neglect post-game refreshment. After a strenuous workout, your body loses a considerable amount of water and electrolytes. Replenish them with a low-sugar sports drink or good old H20.

7. Avoid too much water. Yes, when it comes to water, there can be too much of a good thing. Drinking too much water in a short period of time, gallons within hours, can result in hyponatremia, a dangerous condition sometimes seen in endurance athletes. Symptoms include headache, muscle weakness, convulsions, and even death. To reduce the risk of hyponatremia and water intoxication, limit fluid intake during times of heavy sweating between four and six cups of water per hour.

Well-Done Meat Linked to Aggressive Prostate Cancer

In the study, lead author John Witte, PhD, professor at UCSF medical school and his colleagues compared about 500 men who recently had been diagnosed with aggressive prostate cancer to a cancer-free group.

"Each participant filled out detailed questionnaires about their diets over the previous year, including the amount of meat they ate and how it was prepared," Witte wrote in an email. "Men who ate the most ground beef were 2.3 times more likely than men who ate none to have aggressive prostate cancer."

Higher consumption of fatty lunchmeats (such as salami) and liver was also associated with an increase in cancer risk. Poultry, bacon, and low-fat hot dogs and sausages appeared to have little influence on cancer risk. No link was found between consumption of rare- or medium-cooked ground beef and aggressive prostate cancer.

The narrowness of the study is what makes it significant, says the author. "A key aspect is the focus on more advanced prostate cancer. This is clinically important," explains Witte. "As far as preparation of the meat is concerned, using alternative methods of cooking is an easily modifiable behavior."

The authors examined meat consumption that was not only grilled/barbequed but pan-fried, microwaved, and boiled. Only meats that were grilled/barbequed showed an association with prostate cancer.

The association was even stronger when looking at men with advanced prostate cancer. Those men had a 36 percent higher risk of advanced prostate cancer in the highest quintile of meat consumption compared to the lowest.

According to the National Cancer Institute, evidence suggests potential carcinogens are produced by cooking meat at high temperatures since the process causes the production of carcinogenic heterocyclic amines (HCAs) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). HCAs and PAHs are chemicals formed when muscle meats—including beef, pork, fish, or poultry—are cooked using high-temperature (over 300 degrees Fahrenheit) methods such as pan frying and grilling directly over an open flame.

HCAs and PAHS have been found to be mutagenic—that is, they cause changes in the DNA that may increase the risk of cancer. HCAs are formed when amino acids (the building blocks of protein), sugars, and creatine (a substance found in muscle) react at high temperatures. When meat is cooked on an open flame, fat and juices drip into the fire. The process produces PAHs which coat the meat when flames hit it. People can also be exposed to PAHs from environmental sources such as pollution and tobacco smoke.

What You Can Do

Prostate cancer is the most common, non-skin cancer and the second most common cause of cancer-related death in men in the United States. Prostate cancer can range in severity from benign tumors that require no treatment to very aggressive forms that are usually deadly. Age, family history, and genetics are risk factors (Caucasian men have a lifetime risk of 17.6 percent of developing prostate cancer; African American men have a 20.6 percent risk). The evidence for environmental risk factors—including diet—is less clear, though researchers have long suspected they play a role.

Although there are no specific guidelines regarding HCA/PAH consumption, here are some ways you can reduce your exposure:

• Grill less often.
• Use a microwave to cook meat prior to grilling as it will lessen total cooking time over the flame and thereby reduce HCA formation.
• Continually turn meat when over a high heat source as opposed to leaving it for long periods.
• Refrain from eating charred portions of meat or any gravy made from meat drippings.

Witte hopes the recent findings will help determine which potential cancer-causing compounds should be targeted for prostate cancer prevention strategies. "Although certain mutagenic compounds, may play a role, other molecules may also be involved," writes Witte in the research study summary published in the journal PLoS One. "Further studies are necessary to better characterize the potential role of these compounds in prostate carcinogenesis and to evaluate whether these compounds will respond to chemoprevention of prostate cancer."

In the meantime, Witte recommends eating less red meat. "Don't char your burgers and consume in moderation."

Sources:

National Cancer Institute
http://www.cancer.gov

University of California San Francisco
http://www.ucsf.edu

Cancer Care Guide: Who Are the Doctors?

The diagnosis and treatment of cancer is complex and multiple healthcare professionals play a role in providing comprehensive care to patients.

Oncology physicians

Physicians are either medical doctors (MDs) or osteopathic doctors (OD) and many complete additional training in specific medical conditions, such as oncology. As cancer patients receive their diagnosis and then proceed through treatment, they may see more than one type of oncology physician. Often there are also other oncology specialists behind the scenes providing important services as well.

Medical oncologists are specialized internal medicine physicians and experts in treating cancer with chemotherapy. They care for patients from initial diagnosis through the course of the disease, discussing treatment options, managing pain and treatment side effects, and consulting with other physicians as needed.

Some oncologists specialize in specific types of cancer. The most common specialties are pediatric, gynecologic, and urologic cancers. Hematologists specialize in cancers of the blood (lymphoma and leukemia) and related tissues, such as bone marrow and lymph nodes.

Diagnosing cancer may require multiple diagnostic procedures. Radiation oncologists use x-rays or ultrasound, surgical oncologists remove tissue samples (biopsy,) and pathologists analyze results of lab tests and examine biopsy samples to determine the specific type and nature of a patient's cancer. Radiation oncologists and surgeons also treat cancer by administering radiation to kill cancer cells or surgically removing tumors when possible.

You should choose an oncologist who has experience caring for patients with your type of cancer. Specialists in less common cancers often practice in large cancer centers and medical teaching facilities, rather than community hospitals.

Multi-disciplinary teams

Cancer centers are moving towards a multi-disciplinary team approach to cancer care, which puts the patient at the center of a well-coordinated network of health professionals. A multi-disciplinary approach recognizes that cancer is more than a tumor; it's a disease that touches all aspects of patients' lives.

Multi-disciplinary cancer teams may include medical, surgical, and radiation oncologists; oncology nurses; a physician's assistant; oncology social worker; rehabilitation therapist; dietitian; and chaplain.

You'll likely interact most frequently with your oncology nurse. Oncology nurses provide patient education, coordinate and facilitate care, provide psychosocial support, and may administer chemotherapy. In fact, many cancer programs have designated specialists (who are usually nurses) called Patient Navigators. As the name implies, these professionals are there for patients (and their families) from diagnosis through post-treatment care, providing education, streamlining the process, securing additional patient resources when needed, advocating for the patient, and-most importantly-providing emotional support.

Sources:

National Cancer Institute. "How To Find a Doctor or Treatment Facility If You Have Cancer." Web.
29 June 2009. http://cancer.gov/cancertopics/factsheet/Therapy/doctor-facility

Cancer.net. "The Oncology Team." Web. April 2010.
http://www.cancer.net/patient/All+About+Cancer/Newly+Diagnosed/Find+an+Oncologist/The+Oncology+Team/The+Oncology+Team

Cancer.net. "ASCO Expert Corner: The Role of an Oncology Nurse." Web. 23 March 2010.
http://www.cancer.net/patient/All+About+Cancer/Cancer.Net+Feature+Articles/Expert+Information+from+ASCO/ASCO+Expert+Corner%3A+The+Role+of+an+Oncology+Nurse

Cancer.net. "Types of Oncologists." Web. May 2011.
http://www.cancer.net/patient/All+About+Cancer/Newly+Diagnosed/Find+an+Oncologist/Type

Can Type 1 Diabetes Be Reversed?

Individuals with Type 2 diabetes are fortunate in that it's possible, with diet and lifestyle changes, to actually reverse the course of the disease. Even if they're unable to reverse Type 2, it's possible for them to avoid going on insulin by losing weight, watching carbs, and getting moderate exercise.

Those with Type 1, however, can't change the reality that they'll always need to take insulin since their bodies no longer make it. Or can Type 1 diabetes ever be reversed?

Very preliminary experiments suggest that it might in fact be possible to reverse Type 1 with an inexpensive vaccine that keeps the immune system from attacking pancreatic cells, reports the Los Angeles Times. Studies in mice already had documented the effectiveness of the tuberculosis vaccine known as BCG in Type 1 diabetes. That vaccine was shown to prevent T cells from attacking the insulin-secreting cells in the pancreas. In mice that got the vaccine, the pancreas began to regenerate and to produce insulin once again, effectively "curing" the mice of their diabetes.

An immune system protein called tumor necrosis factor (TNF) is pivotal in the research. When blood levels of TNF are increased, studies show, the protein blocks other areas of the immune system that attack the body, particularly the pancreas.

Researchers report that humans who got low doses of the vaccine began to demonstrate transient increases in insulin production. At Massachusetts General Hospital, medical experts are getting ready to try higher doses of the vaccine in larger groups of people.

The research is intriguing: if the vaccine works, even those who've had Type 1 diabetes for awhile might have their pancreas function restored, reports the Los Angeles Times. That depends, of course, on whether it's possible to block the beta cell-destroying parts of the immune system. "It's fascinating research," says Spyros Mezitis, MD, Ph.D., endocrinology consultant at Lenox Hill Hospital in New York City. "It's changing the way we think about Type 1 diabetes."

Further experiments are needed with more individuals who have Type 1 diabetes, Mezitis says. "And higher doses of BCG tuberculosis vaccine are needed to confirm these important results," he adds.

Immunology expert Eva Mezey, MD, who directs the adult stem-cell unit at the National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, called the study results "fascinating and very promising," according to the Los Angeles Times. She noted, though, that only a small number of patients had gotten good results, and that vaccinations would most likely need to be repeated on a regular basis.

Source:

Maugh, Thomas H. "Research shows promise in reversing Type 1 diabetes." 25 June 2011. Los Angeles Times.
http://articles.latimes.com/2011/jun/25/health/la-he-bcg-diabetes-20110625

How Safe Is Your Child's Apple Juice?

Arsenic, a naturally occurring chemical has two forms-organic and inorganic. Organic arsenic which is found in our air and water supply, passes through the body quickly and according to the FDA, causes no harm.  Inorganic arsenic is more worrisome because it gets into the food supply via the use of pesticides, as an additive in poultry feed and from well water. Inorganic arsenic has been linked to bladder, lung and skin cancer, and an increased risk of cardiovascular disease, immunodeficiency, and type 2 diabetes. Because their bodies are small and constantly growing, children are more vulnerable to the dangers of arsenic exposure and many experts are become increasingly concerned about the cumulative effects of low-level, chronic exposure.

These concerns prompted the Dr. Oz Show as well as Consumer Reports to conduct laboratory tests of arsenic levels in several juice samples. The Dr. Oz Show tested 3 dozen samples from five different brands of apple juice and compared the levels of arsenic to the acceptable standard for water. (The EPA limits arsenic in drinking water to no more than 10 parts per billion-but currently there is no official limit for arsenic in apple juice.) Ten of the samples they tested contained more arsenic than is thought to be safe in drinking water (more than 10 ppb).

An investigation conducted by Consumer Reports a few months later revealed more bad news. In November 2011, Consumer Reports tested 88 samples of apple and grape. Ten percent of those samples had total arsenic levels exceeding federal drinking water standards of 10 ppb. Most of the arsenic detected was the inorganic type which is a human carcinogen.

Because children are big juice drinkers and their body size is small, they consume a larger per-body-weight dose of arsenic than an adult who drinks the same amount. And therein lies the problem according to experts like Robert Wright, MD, PhD, associate professor of pediatrics and environmental health at Harvard University. Wright and others believe there is a link between low-level, chronic exposure and these life-threatening diseases.

"The issue isn't that you'd have to drink 5 or 6 gallons of apple juice to get acutely ill. Over time, the little bit of damage accumulates so if you drink a cup of arsenic every day for 20 years, it could start to add up and cause diseases," Wright explains. "The truth is we simply don't know how low-level, chronic exposure plays out over the long-term."

What's Arsenic Doing in Our Apple Juice?

According to Wright, apples and/or apple juice should not contain arsenic but the naturally occurring element still finds its way into our water and food supply in a variety of ways.

Arsenic has been around for ages, perhaps most notoriously as a poison to kill people. It was also an effective rat poison, an insecticide (banned in the 1980s), and a preservative in pressure-treated lumber for decks and playground equipment. Though these uses are no longer permitted in the US, arsenic may still be present in the soil. Additionally it is still used-without regulation-in other countries (including China, Turkey, and many South American nations) so drinking juice made entirely from American-grown apples doesn't guarantee its safety.

More recently, organic arsenic in US agricultural products has also been a cause for concern. One company suspended the manufacturing of a poultry-feed additive because it was found to contain an organic form of arsenic that once inside the chicken could convert into inorganic arsenic, potentially contaminating the meat. Or, it could get into the soil via chicken droppings.

Apple juice isn't just the beverage of choice for the preschool crowd. Big kids and grown ups ingest it too often unknowingly, since apple juice concentrate is a popular refined sugar substitute used to sweeten candy, cereal, snack bars, and more.

Finally, the process of manufacturing today's US apple juice is likely contributing to the problem since it's not unusual for manufacturers to blend water with apple-juice concentrate from multiple sources (up to seven) The Dr. Oz Show claims 60 percent of apples in our country's apple juice are not grown in this country and for the past decade, most concentrate originates in China.

Still, Wright believes it would be unfair to lay all the blame on China's doorstep since juice is a mixture of components from places all over the world-places where arsenic use is sanctioned. "Steps should be taken to address the problem since there really is no reason for arsenic to be in apple juice," says the metals expert who advocates companies do a better job of monitoring the substances in the products so consumers can make an informed choice.

"Somewhere along the line, there is contamination going on. We need to find the source and eliminate it," says Wright. "There's no need for panic but it's a problem that shouldn't be ignored."

What You Can Do

The good news is that in late 2011, the FDA announced it was considering setting guidelines for permissible levels of inorganic arsenic in apple juice. The agency is currently in the process of gathering data to determine what those guidelines should be.

In the meantime, Jerome Paulson, MD, chair of the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) Council on Environmental Health reminds parents that children do not need juice in their diets. "No kid needs to drink juice. It's not an important part of a balanced diet," says Paulson. " Juice is basically sweet water that really isn't much different than soda."

In addition to limiting your child's consumption of juice, you can have your water tested for arsenic and lead. To find a certified lab, contact your local health department or call the federal Safe Drinking Water Hotline at 800-426-4791.

Finally, your child's pediatrician can perform a urine test to determine arsenic levels.

Sources

Interview with Robert Wright, MD, MPH
Associate Professor of Pediatrics and Enviro. Health
Harvard Medical School

Interview with Jerome Paulson, MD, chair of the AAP Council on Environmental Health

The Food and Drug Administration
www.fda.gov

The Environmental Protection Agency
www.epa.gov

What You're Wearing Could Cause You Pain

Could the source of your pain be all in your wardrobe? Many chronic pain conditions are caused by common fashion mistakes. Finding a cure could be as simple as changing your outfit or accessories. Check out these head to toe tips to see if you're a fashion victim.

Hair Accessories

If you're in the habit of pulling your hair into a tight ponytail or sliding on a headband, your hairstyle might be causing your headaches. When your scalp is pulled tight, nerves at the base of each hair follicle can be irritated. The muscles that lie beneath the skin might become tense and either of these conditions can cause a pain reaction. If your headband presses into the skin behind your ears, this can cause pain to radiate down your neck or up into your head.

Your remedy: Go for a looser hairstyle and softer accessories.

Glasses

Your reading, sun or prescription eyeglasses could be causing you eyestrain or creating pressure points due to a poor fitting frame. Improper eyewear is a leading cause for headaches.

Your remedies:

• See an optometrist regularly and make sure you have the right prescription.
• Choose frames that don't dig or press along your temple, ear or bridge of your nose.
• Select sunglasses that block UV sunrays.

Purse

If you're in the habit of lugging your life in your bag, you could be putting too much weight on your shoulders and neck, which could push your spine, back and shoulders out of alignment.

Your remedies:

• Lighten your load by removing anything you don't need during the day.
• Store duplicate cosmetics at work, school and home.
• Switch to an electronic calendar and note pad (you probably already have one on your phone) instead of toting notebooks and pens.
• Use a backpack or cross-the-shoulder style to distribute weight more evenly.

Bra

Some experts say that 80 percent of women are wearing the wrong bra. If your bra is too tight, too loose or digs into your shoulders, ribs, or underarms, your back, shoulders and chest can all be affected.

Your remedy: Have a professional bra fitting and buy several new bras in the most comfortable style you can find.

Wallet

Most guys shove everything in their wallet then shove their wallet in the back pocket of their pants. If they don't remove it from their pocket when they sit, they might put direct pressure on spinal nerves or throw their spine, low back and pelvis out of alignment.

Your remedies:

• Purge your wallet of all unnecessary receipts, cards and tickets.
• Then, get in the habit of putting it in your jacket pocket or your desk drawer whenever you sit.

Pants

Skinny jeans and too-tight styles can cause more than a muffin top. They can also put uncomfortable pressure on your stomach, intestines and internal organs, compress nerves and limit the range of motion in your hips and legs.

Your remedy: Choose the right size, cut and style out of the many fashionable options available and you'll feel as good as you look.

Shoes

Ditch the super high and super low heels or save them to wear only on special occasions.

High heels push your bodyweight onto the arch, ball and toes of your foot, which can irritate bones, nerves and skin and cause intense pain. They can also throw your posture out of alignment and cause back pain.

Very low heels that don't provide enough arch support can cause almost as many problems as stilettos. And forget about flip-flops. More people injure their feet wearing flip-flops than any other shoe style. Not only do they offer no support, your feet have to work extra hard, just to keep them from falling off. This combination leads to a painful condition called plantar fasciitis, which affects the arch and heel.

Your remedy: Choose a low to mid-heel shoe with plenty of padding and arch support.

Don't be a fashion victim. By making the right choices, you can eliminate common sources of pain and look and feel great.

How to Use 10 Powerful Herbs

Herbs and spices are as at-home in your medicine chest as they are in your pantry.  That's because they possess powerful healing properties that have been used as medicinals for thousands of years.  Check out these 10 common herbs you may already have growing in your yard or sitting in your spice rack.

Lavender was historically used an antiseptic and also to boost mental health. Today, it has many purposes, such as helping with anxiety, insomnia, headaches, depression, and hair loss. Lavender flowers are commonly used in sachets and pillows, and lavender essential oils are popular in the field of aromatherapy. Lavender can also be combined with other oils for use in hair products.

Aloe Vera is used to treat wounds, skin conditions, burns, sunburns, stomach conditions and more. Aloe vera gel is found in hundreds of lotions, sun blocks, and skin products and can be taken orally.

Echinacea (AKA Coneflower) is used to treat or prevent colds, flu and other infections, to boost the immune system, and to treat skin problems.  The plant and roots are used fresh or dried for teas and juice and also sold in supplements over the counter.

Evening Primrose Oil is used for eczema, arthritis, and women's health issues such as premenstrual breast pain, menopausal symptoms, and premenstrual syndrome. The oil is extracted from the seeds of the evening primrose flower and used in capsules.

Garlic is used to treat high blood pressure, high cholesterol, and heart disease and also to boost the immune system. It can be used fresh, dried, or in capsule form and is commonly added to food.

Ginger is used to treat stomach and intestinal ailments including nausea, diarrhea, and indigestion. It's also used to relieve morning sickness in pregnant women.  It can be used fresh, dried or brewed in tea.

Peppermint is used to treat nausea, indigestion, cold and flu symptoms, headaches, muscle and nerve pain, and stomach and bowel conditions.  It can be brewed into tea, chopped into food, or taken in capsule form.

Sage is used to treat mouth and throat inflammation, indigestion and other gastrointestinal problems, to reduce excessive sweating, and to improve mood and memory function. In some cultures, burning sage is used for spiritual purposes. It is available as dried leaves, liquid extracts, and sprays, and essential oils.

Turmeric can be applied directly to the skin for eczema and wound healing or taken orally to improve digestion, relieve arthritis pain, and regulate menstruation. It is also used for heartburn, stomach ulcers, and gallstones and to reduce inflammation. The stems of the turmeric plan are dried and used in a powder form in capsules, teas, or liquid extracts or used as a paste for the skin.

Green tea is used to prevent and treat several cancers (breast, stomach, and skin) and to improve mental function, increase weight loss, lower cholesterol, and increase immune function. Green tea is a popular beverage and can be served hot or cold.  

While none of these herbs are intended to replace modern medicine, all of them can be used in appropriate ways to boost your health and wellbeing. Talk to your physician and a natural health specialist about which herbs are appropriate for you, and in what amounts.

Sources

National Institutes of Health

National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Herbs at a glance
http://nccam.nih.gov/health/herbsataglance.htm

Want to Look Younger? Smile!

In a study published in the journal, Psychology and Aging, researchers from The Institute for Human Development in Berlin discovered the unusual byproduct of smiling. They recruited 154 people of various ages to examine more than 2,000 photographs. The photographs depicted young faces and older ones wearing a wide range of expressions—from sad to happy. The study participants were asked to guess the ages of the subjects in each photograph.

The study's goal was to see how emotions and age—of both the viewer and the subject-affect how we perceive others. Researchers found that age estimations were most accurate when the photographic subjects wore neutral expressions. Subjects with emotional expressions were much harder to gauge. The big surprise: study participants consistently underestimated the ages of smiling subjects by two or more years.

There are few different theories as to why smiling would have this effect. It could be because smiling creates facial wrinkles in people of all ages, so it makes it hard to see which ones are permanent verses the result of your expression. It could simply be because the emotional expression distracts us from examining the face clearly. Or it may be that we find smiling people more attractive. Since we tend to equate attractiveness with youth, we naturally underestimate age.

Researchers also found that our ability to guess peoples' ages also decreases as we get older. Young adults were overall more accurate and less biased in their perceptions. However, all age groups were most accurate when evaluating people of their own age.

If you're one of those people who stop themselves from smiling for fear of wrinkles when you get older, you could be doing yourself a disservice. Smile away! It will make you look happy, healthy, and attractive!

---

Source:

Voelkle, Manuel C.; Ebner, Natalie C.; Lindenberger, Ulman; Riediger, Michaela: "Let me guess how old you are: Effects of age, gender, and facial expression on perceptions of age." Psychology and Aging. Web.

http://psycnet.apa.org/index.cfm?fa=search.displayRecord&id=4484357E-9241-EBD0-0C2E-9B3E7F6C1C23&resultID=1&page=1&dbTab=pa

How to Interpret Cancer Study Results

Consider these two headlines, which announce the same study results:

New drug cuts cancer risk by 50%

Drug results in 2% drop in cancer risk

In this hypothetical study described by the Annie Appleseed project, 100 women take a new drug for cancer and 100 women take a placebo. After five years, two women in the first group develop cancer and four in the placebo group develop cancer. Which headline is correct?

They both are, but each uses a different statistic to describe the same study results. Headline one describes the relative risk of developing cancer. Headline two describes the absolute risk.

Relative Risk
Relative risk is the measure of risk of a certain event happening in one group (women taking a drug) compared to the risk of the same event happening in another group (women taking a placebo). Researchers often use relative risk when describing cohort studies (studies that follow a group over time) and clinical trials.

A relative risk of one means there is no difference between the two groups. A relative risk of more than one means (in our example) that women who do not take the new drug are at increased risk of developing cancer. Relative risk, however, is not an increase in riskand it does not tell you anything about your actual risk. Absolute risk helps you do this.

Absolute Risk
Absolute risk is a measure of the risk of a certain event happening, such as the number of people who may develop (or die from) a certain type of cancer within a certain time period. It does not compare risks; it just states the probability that something will happen and does not take into consideration your other risk factors, such as family history. Your absolute risk of developing cancer increases with age.

The frequently cited statistic that one in eight women will be diagnosed with breast cancer represents a woman's lifetime risk of developing breast cancer, assuming she lives 80 or 90 years. However, a woman's actual absolute risk of developing breast cancer depends on her age. For example, only one out of every 233 women, or .43%, between the ages 30 and 39 are at risk for developing breast cancer, while one out of 27 (3.7%) of women in their 60s are at risk.

Sources:

National Cancer Institute. "Absolute Risk." Web.
http://www.cancer.gov/dictionary?CdrID=666196

National Cancer Institute. "Relative Risk." Web.
http://www.cancer.gov/dictionary?CdrID=618613

Woloshin, Steven, Schwartz, Lisa M. and Welch, H. Gilbert. "Risk Charts: Putting Cancer in Context." Journal of the National Cancer Institute 94 (11) (2002): 799-804. Web.
http://jnci.oxfordjournals.org/content/94/11/799.full

BreastCancer.org. "Risk of Developing Breast Cancer. Web. 19 October 2011.
http://www.breastcancer.org/symptoms/understand_bc/risk/understanding.jsp

Ryan, Nancy. "Relative Risk Vs. Absolute Risk." Annie Appleseed Project. Web. 
http://annieappleseedproject.org/reriveabri.html

George Mason University. "What is the difference between absolute and relative risk?" Stats.org. Web. http://www.stats.org/in_depth/faq/absolute_v_relative.htm

How to Interpret Cancer Study Results

Consider these two headlines, which announce the same study results:

New drug cuts cancer risk by 50%

Drug results in 2% drop in cancer risk

In this hypothetical study described by the Annie Appleseed project, 100 women take a new drug for cancer and 100 women take a placebo. After five years, two women in the first group develop cancer and four in the placebo group develop cancer. Which headline is correct?

They both are, but each uses a different statistic to describe the same study results. Headline one describes the relative risk of developing cancer. Headline two describes the absolute risk.

Relative Risk
Relative risk is the measure of risk of a certain event happening in one group (women taking a drug) compared to the risk of the same event happening in another group (women taking a placebo). Researchers often use relative risk when describing cohort studies (studies that follow a group over time) and clinical trials.

A relative risk of one means there is no difference between the two groups. A relative risk of more than one means (in our example) that women who do not take the new drug are at increased risk of developing cancer. Relative risk, however, is not an increase in riskand it does not tell you anything about your actual risk. Absolute risk helps you do this.

Absolute Risk
Absolute risk is a measure of the risk of a certain event happening, such as the number of people who may develop (or die from) a certain type of cancer within a certain time period. It does not compare risks; it just states the probability that something will happen and does not take into consideration your other risk factors, such as family history. Your absolute risk of developing cancer increases with age.

The frequently cited statistic that one in eight women will be diagnosed with breast cancer represents a woman's lifetime risk of developing breast cancer, assuming she lives 80 or 90 years. However, a woman's actual absolute risk of developing breast cancer depends on her age. For example, only one out of every 233 women, or .43%, between the ages 30 and 39 are at risk for developing breast cancer, while one out of 27 (3.7%) of women in their 60s are at risk.

Sources:

National Cancer Institute. "Absolute Risk." Web.
http://www.cancer.gov/dictionary?CdrID=666196

National Cancer Institute. "Relative Risk." Web.
http://www.cancer.gov/dictionary?CdrID=618613

Woloshin, Steven, Schwartz, Lisa M. and Welch, H. Gilbert. "Risk Charts: Putting Cancer in Context." Journal of the National Cancer Institute 94 (11) (2002): 799-804. Web.
http://jnci.oxfordjournals.org/content/94/11/799.full

BreastCancer.org. "Risk of Developing Breast Cancer. Web. 19 October 2011.
http://www.breastcancer.org/symptoms/understand_bc/risk/understanding.jsp

Ryan, Nancy. "Relative Risk Vs. Absolute Risk." Annie Appleseed Project. Web. 
http://annieappleseedproject.org/reriveabri.html

George Mason University. "What is the difference between absolute and relative risk?" Stats.org. Web. http://www.stats.org/in_depth/faq/absolute_v_relative.htm